Navigating by visual reference to landmarks matched to the sectional chart.

Computing position from time, airspeed, distance, and heading (corrected for wind).

Fly the computed DR heading; confirm with pilotage checkpoints; cross-check both with GPS.

1:500,000; updated every 56 days — use the current chart / ForeFlight.

Optional, workload-permitting ATC radar traffic advisory service — you still see-and-avoid.

Give position, altitude, type, destination; receive a discrete transponder squawk.

Broadcasts your position to ATC & nearby aircraft — improves traffic awareness.

VOR = ground-based bearing system (good backup); GPS = satellite position/track (needs current database).

Turn toward a suitable alternate, THEN refine heading/time/fuel.

Climb, Communicate, Confess, Comply, Conserve.

Improves visibility, radio range, and radar coverage.

Over-reliance on GPS / automation complacency — keep a backup and cross-check.

Get-there-itis — decide early, protect fuel reserve, ask for help.

Verify fuel to the alternate against actual burn and required reserve.